Interaction of Cognitive and Affective Traits in the Problem Solving Process
Stages of Problem Solving	Expected Form	Predominant Cognitive Traits	Predominant Affective Traits
Preparation	Neat, well-organized	Memory, logical thinking	Studiousness, sustained attention
Incubation	Sloppy, unclear	Unconscious processing, fantasy thinking	Intellectual freedom,lack of defensiveness,  openness
Illumination	Often confused, incoherent,  unexplainable	Divergent thinking, fluency	Risk-taking, tolerance of ambiguity and/or failure,spontaneity
Verification	Neat, well-organized, clarity	Convergent and evaluative thinking	Discipline, dependability, planfulness

CREATIVITY THEORY OF MIHALY CSIKSZENTMIHALYI

A “SYSTEMS” MODEL

Source: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper/Collins.

THERE ARE THREE COMPONENTS TO THE SYSTEM:

THE DOMAIN:

• A domain is a discipline, an area of knowledge and content, of study, of skills, of techniques, of symbols and forms, rules and procedures.
• Domains are nested (embedded) within one’s culture and/or cultures

THE FIELD:

• The field consists of the people who are involved with the field, as experts, as authorities, as “gatekeepers” to the domain.
• The people of the field “select” what is do be recognized as new and worthwhile and should be included in the domain.

THE INDIVIDUAL:

• His or her background, experiences, training, abilities, and personality

                        CREATIVITY WITH A CAPITAL “C” CONSISTS IN CHANGING A DOMAIN

The systems model implies that no one component is sufficient to predict or foster creativity. For example,  training in creative problem solving for the employees of a company (the individual component) won’t do much good unless the employees will have easy access to the domain (increased research budgets, resource availability, etc.) and the organization, itself, and its managers and administrators (the field) also recognize and encourage creativity.  

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s Theory of Creativity

I.          Problems with Person-centered Views of Creativity

            A.       Individual abilities not enough

            B.        The nature of creative accomplishment transcends the individual

            C.        The importance of the external, social environment is overlooked

II.          A “Systems” View

A.         A system is a collection of individual  elements that operate together to achieve some goal; each element may influence the functioning of another element

B.         The advantages of a “systems” view:

1.         Complexity better predicts complex phenomena; more factors permit more accurate judgments

2.         The “process” may transcend the individual elements; individual elements “blend” together and the “process” takes on its own identity

III.         The Theory—Creativity Is an Interaction of Three Elements in a Social System

A.         The “domain” is the existing knowledge about a phenomena ( facts, beliefs, methods, techniques, customs, values, rules)

B.         The “field” is the existing expertise in that domain (includes judgments about new ideas)

C.        The “individual” is the skills, motivations, personality traits, experiences, education, etc., of the person

IV.        Definition of Creativity

A.         Creativity results in a transformation of the domain

B.         Creativity is finding new problems (in the domain) to work on that expand the domain and field

V.         His Research

A.         Studies individuals who have achieved; who have transformed their domains and fields

B.         Reveals personal and social interactive factors affecting development of expertise and achievement

C.        Reveals the insights that led to “discovery”; problem finding is more central to creativity than previously thought; in reality, creative individuals engage in more problem finding than problem solving; they have already mastered technique        

WHAT IS FLOW?

“Flow” is that “optimal” experience one feels when things are going well, when one’s actions seem almost automatic, effortless, and yet one is highly focused on one’s activity.

Characteristics of the Optimal Experience:

1. There are clear goals every step of the way.
2. There is immediate feedback to one’s actions.
3. There is a balance between challenges and skills.
4. Actions and awareness are merged.
5. Distractions are excluded from consciousness.
6. There is no worry of failure.
7. Self-consciousness disappears.
8. The sense of time becomes distorted.
9. The activity becomes autotelic (i.e., generating its own enjoyment)

Source: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper/Collins.

Treffinger's C-O-C-O Model of Creative Problem Solving

Donald Treffinger, President and founder of the Center for Creative Learning, Inc., in Sarasota, Florida, proposes the following four-component model of creative problem solving:

1. Characteristics of people

• a. How creative you are
• b. Your style of thinking and creating

2. Operations they perform

• a. Specific "tools" for thinking
• b. Process of solving problems

3. Contexts in which operations are performed

• a. Personal "blocks" to new ideas
• b. Organizational climates and barriers

4. Outcomes that result

• a. Criteria for judging "creativity"

Reference:Treffinger, D.J. & Isaksen, S.G. (1992). Creative problem solving: An introduction. Sarasota, FL: Center for Creative Learning, Inc., 4152 Independence Court, Suite C-7, Sarasota, FL  34234.

Brainstorming: A Technique of Idea-Finding

Source: A. Osborn

Assumptions:

• Ideas can be more productive is criticism is excluded.
• The more ideas the better.

The Group Process:

• Preparation or Fact-finding includes problem analysis, selection of group members, distribution of materials, study, identification of possible areas for idea generation, communication to members, motivation
• Idea-Finding
• a.         Leader explains the problem and the rules
• b.         Idea collectors are identified (recorders, secretaries, or recording devices)
• c.         Pace-setting members identified
• d.         Call for goal of 50, 100, etc., ideas
• e.         The Brainstorm:
  • Criticism is ruled out
  • Free-wheeling is encouraged (any idea accepted)
  • Quantity is wanted
  • Piggy-backing on another idea encouraged (combining and improving are sought)
  • Leader may direct to new areas
  • Explanations and clarifications are permitted
• After the session is over, leader may follow-up on new ideas as a result of incubation (one day later, one week, etc.)
• Solution-finding
  • Tally of all ideas sent to members
  • Evaluation conducted based on a checklist of criteria
  • Later "decision sessions" held where "nuts and bolts" issues  are discussed
  • Implications of ideas are discussed

SYNECTICS ---- INVENTING BY THE "MADNESS METHOD"

Source: W. J. J. Gordon

Basic Assumption: 
In the creative process, the emotional component is more important than the intellectual; the irrational is more important than the rational

The Synectics Session:         

1. Problem as Given (PAG): Analysis and explanation by experts
2. Purge ideas which seem old, irrelevant, uninteresting traditional, etc.
3. Generation of problems as understood (PAU) by members
4. Choice of PAU
5. Evocative question for example
6. Choice of example
7. Evocative question for personal analogy
8. Choice of "Book Title"
9. Evocative question for example
10. Choice of example
11. Examination of example
12. Force Fit into New Viewpoint

The synectics session differs from typical problem solving in that the sessions do not necessarily seek solutions. The primary goal is to seek new viewpoints or speculations about the problem. Then, perhaps, a solution to the specific problem will be forthcoming.

The operational mechanisms of synectics include the use of questions by the leader calling for examples of how members view the problem or feel about the problem. Members are to respond with analogies; that is, trying to think about the problem in other terms, "as if" terms. For example, look at the examples of analogies below:

ANALOGIES

Personal Analogy

• A scientist imagines him/herself to be a "dancing molecule" to help explain some physical, photochemical, electrical process.
• Kekule is reported to have dreamt of an image of a snake swallowing its tail" and thus developed the idea of the benzene ring
• Role play techniques in school, in counseling or therapy, in psychology classes, etc.

Direct Analogy

Sir I. M. Brunel developed the caisson by observing that the worm creates its own tunnel as it moves through the ground

A. G. Bell observed that the "massive" bones in the human ear could be moved by a thin membrane; therefore, a stouter piece of membrane should be able to move a piece of steel. Hence, the telephone. Think of other examples from the natural world.

Symbolic Analogy

Book Titles--focusing on crucial words or phrases which capture the essence of meaning or "feel" of an object or activity or problem
Examples: 

ratchet	dependable intermittency
viscosity	hesitant displacement
solidity	enforced togetherness
forest fire	progressive ingestion
machine- gun burst	connected pauses
target	focused desire
mixture	balanced confusion
multitude	discrete infinity
acid	impure aggressor
receptivity	involuntary willingness

ACTIVITY

Book Titles

Directions: For each of the objects, concepts, functions, or activities listed below, generateas many "book titles" as you can. "Book titles" are short, two-, three-, or four- word combinations or phrases which capture the essence, the basic meaning to you) of the object, concept, function, or activity. There are no right or answers. Think of as many "book titles" as you can.

1. Commuting to and from work (or school):
2. Babysitting
3. Cooking a holiday dinner
4. A business meeting
5. A doctor's appointment
6. Diploma
7. Teenager
8. Mountain climbing
   

   HOWARD GRUBER’S EVOLVING SYSTEMS THEORY OF CREATIVITY

Source: Gruber, H. E. (1999). Evolving systems approach. In M. A. Runco, & S. R. Pritzker (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity (pp. 689-693).

I. Evolving Systems Theory is a theory of the individual

• A.         Goal is to construct an accurate account of the creativity of an Individual
• B.         There is no presumption that generalizations to other cases can be made
• C.        The description starts whenever and wherever in the life and work of the individual that is feasible
• D.        Any facet (aspect) of the individual’s life and experience that can be distinguished is fair game for study, whether “process”, “product”, “person”, or “context”
• E.         An accumulation of case studies is required for this approach

II. Evolving Systems Theory consists of Three Sub-systems:

• A.         Knowledge—how the individual acquires and uses it
• B.         Purpose—how the individual seeks out and discovers problems to work on
• C.        Affect--how the individual maintains motivation and habits of work; how the individual responds to and interacts with others who have influence on one’s life and work   

III. Implications of the Systems Approach

• A.         Creativity can be understood through examining not single events or products, but through “networks of enterprise” over time (that keep the individual interested, motivated, etc.)
• B.         Sudden insight (the “Eureka!” or “Aha!” experience) is but a manifestation of prior preparation, hard work and extended involvement with one’s work
• C.        Collaboration is an important aspect of creativity
• D.        Pluralism is essential for creativity; creative work always takes place in a multiplex environment

Sternberg’s Investment Theory of Creativity

“Buy low, sell high”

Creativity requires an “investment view”:

• “Anyone can do it”
• “Buying low and selling high is a way of life”
• “What’s low and high changes with time and place”
• “You must be attentive”
• “You must be selective”
• “You may be ignored and opposed”
• “You will need courage”

I.          Cognitive Ability

A.         Intelligence

• a.         You need to know things to generate ideas—declarative knowledge
• b.         You need to know how to proceed (the process)— procedural knowledge
• c.         You need to know how to make things happen—metacognition

B.         Knowledge—from your experience

• a.         Formal knowledge—from education
• b.         Informal, tacit understandings—from experience

II.          Affective Characteristics

A.         Supportive style

• a.         Legislative, executive, judicial styles
• b.         Forms of mental self-government:
  • 1)         monarchistic
  • 2)         hierarchical
  • 3)         oligarchic
  • 4)         anarchic
• c.         Levels of  mental self-government
  • 1)         global
  • 2)         local
• d.         Scope of mental self-government
  • 1)         internal
  • 2)         external
• e.         Orientations of mental self government
  • 1)         liberal
  • 2)         conservative

B.         Personality traits

• a.         Perseverance
• b.         Willingness to take sensible risks
• c.         Willingness to grow
• d.         Tolerance of ambiguity
• e.         Openness to new experience
• f.          Belief in yourself and courage of your convictions

C.        Motivation

• a.         Intrinsic motivation
• b.         Extrinsic motivation
• c.         Achievement motivation

III.         Social, Environmental Factors

A.         A “Bullish” Environment

Creativity exists in everyone; it’s natural; creativity is self-Actualization

B.         A “Bearish” Environment

Creativity requires challenge, obstacles, dissatisfaction, unhappiness

C.        Characteristics of Creative Environments

• 1)         Rich contexts, stimulating, playful, humor is present
• 2)         Some limits to provide challenge, guidance
• 3)         Evaluation is useful, non-threatening
• 4)         Competition and cooperation can help or hinder creativity, depending…. Competition with challenge is good, with punishment is bad. Cooperation without challenge is bad, with mutual encouragement and support is good.
• 5)         Home climate is flexible, challenging
• 6)         Role models, mentors
• 7)         School and organizational climates support innovation, reward new ideas
• 8.         Societal ambiance (see Arieti’s list of factors); also Simonton’s cultural analyses (timing is important)

THE PRODUCT

MEASUREMENT OF THE CREATIVE PRODUCT

A.        THE PROBLEM OF MULTIPLE DEFINITIONS OF CREATIVITY

1. FLUENCY
2. FLEXIBILITY
3. ORIGINALITY, NOVELTY
4. ELABORATION
5.  CONNECTEDNESS
6. RESISTANCE TO CLOSURE
7. “SURPRISE”
8. USEFULNESS, ACCEPTANCE

            ISSUE:           “AVERAGE” CREATIVITY VS. EXTREME EXCEPTIONALITY

B.        ASSESSMENT METHODS

1. PAPER-AND-PENCIL TESTS
2. PERSONALITY MEASURES
3. SELF-REPORTS OF INTERESTS, ACTIVITIES, ACHIEVEMENTS
4. NOMINATIONS BY PARENTS, TEACHERS, SELF, AND OTHERS
5. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS
6. PRODUCT EVALUATIONS (EXPERT JUDGES OR CONSENSUAL  ASSESSMENT)

            ISSUE:           PREDICTION OF REAL-LIFE CREATIVITY

    

Figure 1.         The Original Structure of Intellect Model

Sternberg’s Propulsion Theory of Creativity (from 1999 APA Address)

There are seven (7 types of creative productions, from simple replication to creating a whole new field, set of questions, methods, etc.

• a.         Replication
• b.         Redefinition
• c.         Forward incrementalism, most common type, involving forward movement of an existing field
• d.         Advanced forward incrementalism, an idea that is ahead of its time, accelerating the field beyond where people are willing to go
• e.         Redirection, taking a field that is moving in one direction and branching it off into a new direction
• f.          Reconstruction redirection, which is backward divergent motion. It involves recognizing that we should go back to an earlier paradigm and go on from there. We made a mistake earlier; we went off-track.
• g.         Re-inititiation. A field has exhausted itself. The paradigm is shot. Let’s question all our assumptions. We need a major paradigm shift. Let’s start again from an entirely different point. We must challenge our existing ideas.

Propulsion means pushing the field, changing to new fields, new questions, new methods

The type of creativity most valued is forward incrementalism

The kinds of creativity that are typically ignored, rejected, punish, etc., are the more radical forms

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